ISSN : 1598-2920
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to examine the globalization processes and current positioning of SportAccord-certified Eastern martial arts within the Olympic sport systems by analyzing their pathways toward Olympic adoption and sustained recognition, while also identifying their present developmental status and areas requiring strategic improvement. METHODS This study employed a qualitative research design based on a systematic literature review and content analysis. Relevant academic articles, policy documents, and organizational reports were collected and analyzed to derive thematic interpretations related to governance, institutional recognition, and Olympic integration. RESULTS First, among the three Eastern martial arts international federations (IFs) that are full members of the Alliance of Independent Recognized Members of Sport, Jiu-Jitsu, Aikido, and Kendo ranked in descending order of international prominence. Second, among the four Eastern martial arts IFs that are full members of the Association of IOC-recognized International Sports Federations, Karate, Wushu, Muaythai, and Sumo demonstrated a hierarchical advantage in this respective order. Third, among the two Eastern martial arts IFs that are full members of the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations, Judo and Taekwondo ranked in descending order of prominence. CONCLUSIONS The nine Eastern martial arts examined were classified into six developmental stages: “stability,” “adoption,” “empowerment,” “excellence,” “normal,” and “low,” highlighting both shared characteristics and stage-specific disparities in their Olympic integration trajectories. A key determinant distinguishing Olympic official sports from non-Olympic martial arts was whether the martial art’s country of origin had previously hosted the Olympic Games, as well as whether the sport had been incorporated into multi-sport events for athletes with disabilities.
PURPOSE The present study aimed to compare the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and body fat percentage (BF%) between South Korean adults and those from other races. METHODS The study included 15,448 adults in the United States (US) and 7,020 adults in Korea with available anthropometric and body composition measurements from the 1999–2006 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and the 2009 Korea NHANES dataset, respectively. Body composition variables were measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Correlation coefficients and mean values for body composition variables were calculated for sex, age, and weight status subgroups within each race. RESULTS Overall, the correlations between BMI and BF% were weaker in the Korean cohort (r = 0.640 for men and r = 0.703 for women) than in the various races within the US cohort (r = 0.762–0.796 for men and r = 0.771–0.807 for women). In subgroup analyses, Korean adults had a lower BF%, a higher proportion of trunk mass, and a lower proportion of limb mass compared to most other races in the US. Additionally, Korean adults had greater trunk fat accumulation and less leg fat accumulation. CONCLUSIONS BMI was not as accurate in reflecting the degree of obesity in Korean adults as it was in other races in the US. Racial differences were observed in not only body composition but also body fat distribution.
PURPOSE This study was conducted to classify preference factors in educational services among students at the Department of Football Science. METHODS Using the Q methodology, 25 Q-samples were developed, 33 participants (P-sample) were selected, and Q-sorting, Q-factor analysis, and interpretation were conducted. RESULTS Three distinct types were identified in the analysis, and in-depth discussions and implications were provided for each type. Type 1 featured practical skills and facilities-oriented, Type 2 included practical skills and athlete management-oriented, and Type 3: social and scientific theory-oriented. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate the usefulness of the Q-methodological approach in the exploration of educational services and highlight its important contribution to the improvement and development of educational services in football departments that reflect students’ characteristics and values.
PURPOSE This study examined whether multiple object tracking (MOT)-based perceptual skill training is associated with changes in visual search strategies and decision-making performance in ice hockey players, through a comparison of elite and non-elite groups. METHODS Twenty male ice hockey players participated in this study, comprising 10 elite players and 10 non-elite players. Participants completed a pretest, followed by six weeks of perceptual skill training conducted four times per week, and subsequently a posttest. During testing, participants viewed offensive ice hockey video-based scenarios and were instructed to select the optimal passing option as quickly and accurately as possible. Eye movements were recorded using a wearable eye-tracking system. Visual search behavior was assessed using fixation frequency, fixation duration, and fixation location, with fixation location expressed as area-based percentages. Decision-making performance was evaluated using response time and decision accuracy. RESULTS Following the training period, fixation frequency decreased, and fixation duration increased in both groups. In addition, both groups demonstrated greater fixation on the puck carrier area during decision-making. For decision-making response time, a significant time interaction was observed. Specifically, the elite group showed a non-significant decrease in response time, whereas the non-elite group exhibited a significant increase. Decision-making accuracy increased from pretest to posttest in both groups; however, the interaction effect was not significant. CONCLUSIONS MOT-based perceptual skill training was associated with measurable changes in visual search behavior and decision-making outcomes during video-based tactical situations. However, because the study employed a single-group pretest–posttest design without a control group, causal interpretations regarding training effects should be made with caution.
PURPOSE This study investigated the effects of high-intensity interval training combined with heat stress on immune cell composition and metabolic syndrome risk factors in obese men. METHODS Forty-five obese adult men were randomly assigned to one of three groups, high-intensity interval training with heat stress (HIIT + H), moderate-intensity continuous training with heat stress (MICT + H), or heat stress only (H). All groups participated in their respective interventions three times per week for 12 weeks. Body composition, adipokine levels, immune cell profiles, and metabolic syndrome risk factors were measured before and after intervention. RESULTS Both HIIT + H and MICT + H groups exhibited significant reductions in body weight, BMI, and body fat percentage (p < .05). Adiponectin levels significantly increased in HIIT + H and MICT + H groups, whereas adipsin levels significantly decreased in all three groups (p < .05). NK- and T-cell proportions significantly increased across all groups (p < .05). Waist circumference, fasting glucose, and triglyceride levels significantly decreased in HIIT + H and MICT + H groups, whereas HDL-C levels significantly increased in both exercise groups (p < .05). CONCLUSIONS Combined exercise and heat stress training was associated with favorable changes in body composition, adipokine levels, immune cell composition, and metabolic syndrome risk factors in obese men. Both HIIT + H and MICT + H resulted in similar positive changes, and HIIT + H can be considered a practical intervention option based on comparable improvements observed with a shorter exercise duration.
PURPOSE This study was conducted to investigate the differences in defensive response strategies according to player expertise, offensive direction, and the presence of deceptive actions in a one-on-one basketball context. Specifically, ground reaction force (GRF) distribution between both feet and center of pressure (COP) variability was examined during the initial defensive movement phase. METHODS Participants included seven skilled male university basketball players and seven novice male university students with <3 years of experience. They were required to respond to the visual stimulus of an offensive player performing either a shoot or a directional dribble (left or right) on a screen. Upon presentation of the visual stimulus, the participant performed a defensive movement from a designated position. A two-way mixed ANOVA as conducted on variables, including the difference in bilateral foot contact timing difference, preparatory time, GRF asymmetry, and COP variability, with expertise and offensive direction or faking condition as independent variables. RESULTS Experts exhibited a delayed but more differentiated bilateral foot contact pattern than novices, indicating a significant effect of expertise. They also demonstrated a higher GRF asymmetry. COP variability in the mediolateral (ML) direction revealed significant main effects of both expertise and offensive direction. In particular, experts showed greater COP ML variability during lateral drive situations than novices. They also adjusted their preparatory time according to the presence of a deceptive action. CONCLUSIONS Experts used a gradual and asymmetric foot contact strategy during initiation, characterized by higher GRF asymmetry and increased COP variability. Therefore, they may adopt a more flexible and anticipatory movement pattern, enabling stable posture adjustment and directional readiness in dynamic defensive scenarios.
PURPOSE This study critically examines case studies in Sport for Development and Peace (SDP) programs, to analyze their characteristics, the modes of local agencies’ participation, and the limitations they face. METHODS A scoping review was conducted that followed the framework of Arksey and O’Malley (2005), and from 147 academic articles published since 2000, a total of 25 were selected and analyzed based on specific criteria. RESULTS First, the SDP case studies analyzed in this review show that programs are conducted by diverse actors—including states, international organizations, NGOs, and corporations—and their target groups, goals, and implementation approaches vary by context. Second, local agency was expressed in the form of program planning and operation, contextual interpretation and adjustment, and the building of community trust. Third, however, despite this expansion of local agency, within external discourses, constraints continued to exist, evaluation frameworks, and resource distribution structures. CONCLUSIONS The findings suggest that advancing SDP depends on the institutionalization of conditions in which local agencies can lead program planning and operations, adapt external guidelines to local contexts, and transform conflicts and tensions into opportunities for autonomy and institutional improvement. In this context, sustainability should be grounded not merely in resource provision but also in relational trust and lived experience, requiring microlevel analysis and participatory governance incorporating local experiences into institutional design.
PURPOSE This study aimed to examine the kinematic differences between successful and failed (baulk) hurdle steps in springboard diving and to identify key factors influencing successful execution. METHODS Ten diving athletes (age: 20.82 ± 2.75 years; height: 170.09 ± 5.86 cm; body mass: 64.91 ± 5.63 kg; career: 11.64 ± 2.46 years) performed both successful and failed hurdle step movements during a national diving competition. Whole-body center of mass (WCoM) variables—including position, velocity, tilt angle, projection angle, mechanical energy, work, and average impact force—were analyzed. Paired t-tests were used to compare movement types, and binary logistic regression (forward likelihood ratio) was conducted to identify predictors of success. RESULTS At board contact (E1), baulks exhibited significantly lower mechanical energy (p < .05). During board recoil (P2), posterior impact force was significantly higher in baulks (p < .05). At take-off (E3), successful hurdle steps demonstrated higher forward WCoM velocity, a more upright tilt angle, a more favorable projection angle, and greater mechanical energy (p < .05). Mechanical work during the push-off phase (P3) was also significantly greater in successful steps (p < .05). Logistic regression analysis indicated that only mechanical energy at E3 significantly predicted success (p < .05). CONCLUSIONS Mechanical energy at take-off (E3) is a key predictor of successful hurdle step execution. Quantitative analysis of WCoM variables may support technical planning and performance evaluation, informing strategies to reduce baulks and improve consistency in springboard diving.
PURPOSE This study aims to systematically analyze and comparatively examine the curriculum structures and instructional content of human rights education within sport. METHODS Using a purposive sampling strategy, three institutional cases were selected for analysis: the Sport Ethics Center, the Level-2 Sport Instructor Training Institute, and the School Sports Promotion Association. The curricula were analyzed based on three analytical dimensions: (a) curriculum structure, (b) educational content, and (c) instructional methods. RESULTS The findings revealed three key patterns. First, the target groups of human rights education were limited to athletes, coaches, and referees, with instructional efforts predominantly oriented toward the elite sport context. Second, the educational content was largely concentrated on issues of sexual violence, physical violence, and learning rights, with frequent reliance on elite sport-related cases (e.g., athlete misconduct, admission controversies, and performance-based pressures). This athlete concentration substantially narrowed the conceptual and practical scope of human rights education in sport. Third, instructional delivery methods relied primarily on online video-based lectures and large-scale group training formats, reflecting an emphasis on administrative efficiency and ease of dissemination rather than pedagogical depth and interaction. CONCLUSIONS Based on these findings, three recommendations are proposed. First, the scope of educational content should be broadened to encompass a wider spectrum of human rights issues in sport, extending beyond a narrow focus on (sexual) violence and learning rights. Second, there is a clear need to develop context-specific and customized human rights education programs tailored to the Sport for All sector, which remain underrepresented in current curricula. Third, instructional approaches should progressively shift from predominantly online, large-scale formats toward offline, small-scale, and participatory learning environments to enhance learner engagement and overall effectiveness.
PURPOSE This study aimed to examine the physiological effects of acute beetroot juice (BRJ) supplementation on metabolic function, skeletal muscle oxygenation, and cardiac performance during endurance exercise at 70% of maximal heart rate (HRmax) in healthy young men. METHODS Ten healthy men took part in a randomized, double-blind, crossover study. Each completed two 30-minute cycling sessions at 70% HRmax, after consuming either a placebo or a BRJ supplement with 400 mg of nitrate. During these sessions, workload, perceived exertion (RPE), metabolic parameters (VE, VO2, VCO2, RER, O2pulse), skeletal muscle oxygenation (oxHb, dxHb, toHb, StO2), and cardiac metrics (HR, SV, CO) were recorded. RESULTS Compared to placebo, BRJ supplementation notably enhanced exercise workload and VO2, with a significant rise in O2pulse (p<0.05). However, there were no significant changes in skeletal muscle oxygenation or cardiac function measures. RPE scores remained unchanged between the conditions. CONCLUSIONS Acute BRJ ingestion led to a higher exercise workload at the same heart rate during endurance exercise, along with an increase in VO2. This was also accompanied by an increase in O2pulse, a marker of circulatory oxygen transport, suggesting that acute BRJ intake could affect physiological responses associated with endurance performance in healthy young men.
PURPOSE This study aimed to explore the developmental background and dissemination process of “Hanball,” a newly introduced sport initiated by a national governing body as an alternative model to address the structural crisis of elite sports, and to analyze its educational and social value. METHODS To achieve the research objectives, a qualitative case study design was employed involving three participants, including former national handball players and elementary school teachers who were deeply engaged in the design, implementation, and dissemination of Hanball. Data were collected through in-depth, semi-structured interviews and analyzed using inductive content analysis. To ensure trustworthiness, triangulation and member checking were conducted in accordance with the qualitative rigor criteria proposed by Guba and Lincoln (1985). RESULTS First, Hanball was identified as a sport proactively developed by the Korea Handball Federation to disrupt the vicious cycle of structural challenges in elite handball, including the decline in student-athletes’ participation caused by a shrinking school-age population and recruitment instability following the COVID-19 pandemic. Second, Hanball demonstrated a high level of field acceptance, primarily prioritizing student safety and significantly lowering participation barriers through the use of sponge-based ball materials, the introduction of portable goals, and the simplification of rules. Third, beyond the recreational aspects typically associated with existing new sports such as Tchoukball, Hanball exhibited a distinct comparative advantage by facilitating a virtuous cycle of technical transfer to traditional handball and early athlete identification, achieved through the preservation of sport’s core technical and tactical mechanisms. CONCLUSIONS Hanball demonstrates substantial potential as a Korean-style new sport model that enhances public accessibility while preserving the technical identity of the original sport under the leadership of a governing body. It is therefore suggested that Hanball may serve as a viable policy alternative for fostering an organic linkage between school sports and elite sports systems, as well as for revitalizing less popular sports disciplines.
PURPOSE This study critically reexamines the fairness discourse underlying antidoping policies through Max Scheler’s philosophy of personalism. It aims to reveal how regulatory fairness, grounded in strict liability, neglects the moral and human dimensions of sport. METHODS The study employs a philosophical-ethical analysis using Scheler’s concepts of personhood, community, and value hierarchy. The Systems-Theoretic Accident Model and Processes (STAMP) is incorporated to examine systemic reform of antidoping governance beyond individual blame and control. RESULTS The findings indicate that the prevailing fairness paradigm objectifies athletes by prioritizing outcomes over ethical autonomy, thereby undermining human dignity. In contrast, Scheler’s framework conceptualizes the sports community as a “community of persons” in which justice and fairness are realized through moral autonomy and mutual responsibility. CONCLUSIONS The study argues for reconstructing antidoping systems as solidarity-based frameworks that emphasize collective moral responsibility and institutional learning. Integrating Scheler’s ethics with the STAMP model, it proposes a cyclical process—detection, analysis, improvement, and reapplication—that redefines fairness as an ethical relation grounded in human dignity rather than control mechanisms.
PURPOSE This study investigates the factors influencing the commercial performance of each overseas club invitation match by comparing fans’ online reactions. METHODS Social data regarding the Tottenham–Team K League, Barcelona–FC Seoul, and Newcastle–Team K League matches held in 2024–2025 were collected from Naver and Daum, refined using Textom, and analyzed for word frequency, TF-IDF, and degree centrality. CONCOR analysis was conducted using UCINET 6.0 and NetDraw to determine the structural characteristics of online perceptions. RESULTS The Tottenham match demonstrated strong interest centered on domestic players, while the Barcelona match exhibited consumption-oriented reactions, such as ticket transactions, merchandise-related, and popup store discussions. The Newcastle match drew greater attention to external events, including halftime performances, and recorded weak commercial performance. CONCLUSIONS Fan reactions to invitation matches varied in relation to club value, star players, and marketing strategies, positioning these matches as complex sports events. Thus, future invitation matches should incorporate well-designed competitive structures and fan engagement initiatives to enhance their sustainability as recurring sport events.
PURPOSE This study examined changes in participants’ sports values over time during a park golf program using a latent growth model and to identify whether these changes differed by gender. METHODS A total of 107 learners enrolled in a lifelong education program in park golf participated in the study. Sports values were measured three times over a 12-week period. The data that were collected were analyzed using a structural equation modeling–based latent growth model, where gender was specified as a time-invariant covariate to identify differences in growth trajectories. RESULTS First, participants’ sports values showed a significant linear increase over the course of the 12-week program, confirming a continuous and consistent trend of improvement trend. Individuals who had higher initial levels of sports values also had greater rates of change, indicating a generally similar pattern of enhancement across participants. Second, the rate of change showed significant differences by gender. While there was no gender difference in the initial levels of sports values, male participants demonstrated greater improvement faster than female participants. This indicates that the park golf program may have been associated with greater increases in sports values among male participants than among female participants. CONCLUSIONS The findings indicate that the park golf program promotes positive growth in sports values and serves as a meaningful lifelong sports education activity. The more pronounced improvement noted in male participants highlights the need for gender-responsive program design.
PURPOSE This study investigates the structural and strategic priorities of a YouTube-based digital content strategy developed as part of a marketing strategy to ensure the sustainability of Taekwondo dojangs in response to accelerated digital transformation and demographic shifts. METHODS For its analytical framework, this study used the 5A model that was proposed by Kotler et al. (2017) and adopted a mixed-methods approach using Delphi and Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to empirically evaluate the relative importance of various strategies of content marketing on YouTube. A three-round Delphi survey was conducted with a panel of seven experts, followed by AHP analysis involving thirty field specialists. RESULTS The analysis indicates that the advocacy stage, which includes community-driven content, emotional storytelling, and short-form videos, exhibited the highest level of importance. This is followed by “act” and “ask” stages, which formed strategic priorities. These findings suggest the need to shift the strategic direction from simple brand awareness to performance marketing that is focused on inducing action and fostering spontaneous dissemination. In particular, first-visit vlogs, time-lapses demonstrating transformation, and participation-based community content are considered to be effective tools for the conversion of potential customers and to enhance brand loyalty on digital platforms. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates the necessity for Taekwondo studios to evolve from traditional educational institutions into digitally-enhanced, community-based platforms. Academically, its empirical contribution entails the application of a digital consumer behavior framework and multicriteria decision-making techniques to the field of athletic services. In practical terms, this research is significant, as it provides strategic directions for enhancing the sustainability and competitiveness of Taekwondo studios in the digital landscape.
PURPOSE This narrative review aimed to summarize recent human EMG studies of intermuscular coupling and muscle network analysis, with a focus on their conceptual basis, interpretive assumptions, and analytical procedures, and to propose stage-specific reporting items to improve methodological transparency and cross-study comparability. METHODS Fifteen studies met the inclusion criteria and were reviewed for preprocessing, coupling metrics, frequency-band selection, network construction, thresholding, directionality analysis, and comparison units. RESULTS The included studies varied in preprocessing, coupling metrics, frequency-band selection, network construction, thresholding, directionality analysis, and comparison units. This methodological variation is not merely a limitation, but partly reflects differences in task demands, participant characteristics, measured muscles, signal properties, and analytical aims across studies. In addition, each coupling metric captures a distinct aspect of intermuscular relationships, including time-domain covariation, frequency-specific synchrony, cross-frequency interaction, nonlinear dependence, or directional influence. CONCLUSIONS Muscle network outcomes should be interpreted as task-dependent coupling structures shaped by both physiological and methodological factors. This review proposes stage-specific reporting items for EMG data preparation, coupling estimation, matrix specification, network construction, graph metrics, and condition or group comparisons. These reporting considerations may improve methodological transparency, reproducibility, and cross-study comparability in exercise science.
PURPOSE This study investigated weight class-related differences in force maintenance ability and muscle fatigue resistance among elite Ssireum athletes and elucidated the underlying factors associated with these differences. METHODS Twenty-four elite Ssireum athletes were classified into a lightweight (Taebaek and Geumgang, n=12) or heavyweight (Halla and Baekdu, n=12) group. Absolute and body-weight-normalized forces were measured using a load cell during maximal isometric pulling. The mean power frequency slope on electromyography was used as a fatigue index to assess fatigue progression in the upper- and lower-extremity muscles. Between-group differences were examined using independent t-tests (or nonparametric equivalents), and laterality–group interaction effects were analyzed using two-way mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA, α=.05). RESULTS The weight groups differed significantly (p<.05) in force maintenance evaluation measured by load cell sensors: force maintenance slope (N/s), normalized total mean force (N/bw), normalized early mean force (N/bw), and normalized late mean force (N/bw). Furthermore, the groups differed significantly in muscle fatigue resistance in the left flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU, p=0.013). Two-way mixed ANOVA revealed significant side effects for the biceps femoris (BF, p=0.035) and significant class effects for the latissimus dorsi (LD, p=0.038). CONCLUSIONS Weight-class differences in force maintenance capacity are driven by distinct muscle fatigue resistance patterns, rather than absolute strength. Specifically, divergent neuromuscular strategies in upper- and lower-limb coordination are crucial for maintaining repeated force and addressing performance gaps during late-stage competition. These findings establish a scientific basis for developing weight-class-specific training protocols and multidimensional performance indicators for elite Ssireum athletes.
PURPOSE This study aimed to examine how heel height affects patellofemoral and ankle joint reaction forces during stair ascent, using a musculoskeletal modeling approach in young adult women. METHODS Twenty healthy young women performed stair ascent under three heel height conditions (1, 5, and 7 cm). Three-dimensional kinematic data (200 Hz) and ground reaction force data (1,000 Hz) were collected. Musculoskeletal modeling was used to estimate patellofemoral and ankle joint reaction forces. Peak values during early and late stance for compressive and anterior–posterior components were analyzed. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA with Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc tests (p<.017) examined differences among conditions (α=.05). RESULTS Vertical ground reaction forces showed no significant differences across heel conditions (p>.05). However, patellofemoral joint reaction forces rose notably with increased heel height. During early stance, compressive force was approximately 19% higher in the 7 cm condition and 37% higher in the 7 cm condition compared to the 1 cm condition (p<.017). In late stance, anterior–posterior components increased by 169% in the 7 cm condition (p<.001). Conversely, ankle compressive forces decreased as heel height increased (p<.001). In contrast, the anterior–posterior components increased significantly (p<.017). CONCLUSIONS Increasing heel height when climbing stairs results in higher reaction forces in the patellofemoral joint and alters ankle joint loading patterns. Although vertical ground reaction forces stay consistent across various conditions, the anterior–posterior propulsion component increases with taller heels. This suggests that wearing higher heels affects joint loading during stair ascent in young women.
PURPOSE This study explored the sex differences in biomechanical characteristics during a side shuffle step deceleration maneuver. METHODS Participants included 12 healthy adult men and 10 healthy adult women, and all performed a side shuffle step task. Time-series data were extracted for temporal parameters (approach velocity, contact time, and deceleration time) and biomechanical variables (foot-ground angle, resultant ground reaction force, center of mass velocity, and three-dimensional joint angles and moments) during the deceleration phase. For statistical analysis, temporal variables were analyzed using the Mann–Whitney U test, and time-series biomechanical data were analyzed using an independent t-test with nonparametric statistical parametric mapping (α = .05). RESULTS Women exhibited a significantly more pronounced eversion alignment across the entire phase than men (p < .05). Specifically, during the initial deceleration phase, women displayed higher knee extension moments (p < .05), whereas men exhibited higher ankle abduction moments and knee flexion moments (p < .05). CONCLUSIONS Distinct foot alignments and joint moment control strategies may manifest between sexes during the initial deceleration phase of a side shuffle step. Moreover, these findings can serve as a foundation for future studies investigating intersegmental coordination of the lower extremity and neuromuscular control mechanisms.
PURPOSE This study investigated the differences in physical fitness parameters and stone delivery performance according to competitive level in wheelchair curling athletes. METHODS Sixteen male Korean wheelchair curling athletes were grouped into national (NT, n=8) and nonnational (NNT, n=8) team groups. Physical fitness parameters included grip strength, modified pull-ups, forward reach distance, and performance on the 14-m wheelchair shuttle test. Stone delivery performance was assessed using draw and take-out shots under standardized conditions. Statistical significance was set at p<.05. RESULTS The NT group achieved significantly higher values than the NNT group in right grip strength (p=0.045), modified pull-up repetitions (p=0.017), right forward reach distance (p=0.024), and the 14-m wheelchair shuttle ride test (p=.001). For stone delivery performance, the NT group demonstrated significantly higher scores in the in-turn come-around (p=0.022) and in-turn freeze (p=0.046), among draw shots. No significant between-group differences were observed in any take-out shot variables or in-turn conditions (p>0.05). However, although not significant, the NT group showed a relatively better performance and a moderate effect size in the in-turn hit-and-roll (p=.072, r=.45). CONCLUSIONS Differences in competitive level among wheelchair curling athletes were primarily linked to specific physical fitness variables and the precision of draw shot In-turn performance. Therefore, performance evaluations and training programs should prioritize upper-body strength and endurance, trunk control, repeated wheelchair mobility, and the stability required for executing high-precision in-turn draw shots including come-arounds and freezes.
